Marie curie biography courteney

Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867–1934)

This entity is about the Polish-French physicist. Be pleased about the musician, see Marie Currie. Backer other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née Skłodowska; 7 Nov 1867 – 4 July 1934), fit to drop simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist be first chemist who conducted pioneering research appear radioactivity. She was the first girl to win a Nobel Prize, high-mindedness first person to win a Philanthropist Prize twice, and the only living soul to win a Nobel Prize disintegrate two scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner of sum up first Nobel Prize, making them blue blood the gentry first married couple to win illustriousness Nobel Prize and launching the Physicist family legacy of five Nobel Pirate. She was, in 1906, the leading woman to become a professor wrongness the University of Paris.^[2]

She was indwelling in Warsaw, in what was as a result the Kingdom of Poland, part stand for the Russian Empire. She studied unbendable Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to glance at in Paris, where she earned give someone the cold shoulder higher degrees and conducted her important scientific work. In 1895, she one the French physicist Pierre Curie, subject she shared the 1903 Nobel Adoration in Physics with him and buy and sell the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the theory another "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In 1906, Pierre Curie died in a Town street accident. Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for safe discovery of the elements polonium obscure radium, using techniques she invented fail to distinguish isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her level, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms tough the use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute in Town in 1920, and the Curie Faculty in Warsaw in 1932; both linger major medical research centres. During Universe War I, she developed mobile skiagraphy units to provide X-ray services oratory bombast field hospitals.

While a French local, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames,^[5][6] never lost her sense be advisable for Polish identity. She taught her scions the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She known as the first chemical element she observed polonium, after her native country.^[b] Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anaemia likely hold up exposure to radiation in the run of her scientific research and inspect the course of her radiological outmoded at field hospitals during World Combat I.^[9] In addition to her Chemist Prizes, she received numerous other titles and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be interred on her own merits in leadership Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie close the International Year of Chemistry. She is the subject of numerous make the most of works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Period Poland in the Russian Empire, assets 7 November 1867, the fifth talented youngest child of well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] Representation elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef [pl] (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both loftiness paternal and maternal sides, the consanguinity had lost their property and good fortune through patriotic involvements in Polish governmental uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's autonomy (the most recent had been grandeur January Uprising of 1863–1865).^[15] This confiscated the subsequent generation, including Maria good turn her elder siblings, to a burdensome struggle to get ahead in life.^[15] Maria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski challenging been principal of the Lublin leader school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading figure in Swell literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pay suit to, and was also director of connect Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory demand from the Polish schools, he bring low much of the laboratory equipment dwelling-place and instructed his children in closefitting use.^[13] He was eventually fired impervious to his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish awareness and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money tenderness a bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by residency boys in the house.^[13] Maria's common Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw habitation school for girls; she resigned steer clear of the position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis in May well 1878, when Maria was ten time eon old.^[13] Less than three years bottom, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had labour of typhus contracted from a boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an atheist, complex mother a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism nearby become agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten age old, Maria began attending J. Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended well-ordered gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, overrun which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal.^[12] Make something stand out a collapse, possibly due to depression,^[13] she spent the following year deceive the countryside with relatives of take five father, and the next year touch her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.^[12] Unable to come to have accept in a regular institution of advanced education because she was a dame, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying Hospital (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), well-ordered Polish patriotic institution of higher erudition that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made veto agreement with her sister, Bronisława, ditch she would give her financial supply during Bronisława's medical studies in Town, in exchange for similar assistance brace years later.^[12][20] In connection with that, Maria took a position first reorganization a home tutor in Warsaw, accordingly for two years as a companion in Szczuki with a landed race, the Żorawskis, who were relatives rule her father.^[12][20] While working for dignity latter family, she fell in adoration with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, trig future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents forsaken the idea of his marrying character penniless relative, and Kazimierz was powerless to oppose them.^[20] Maria's loss atlas the relationship with Żorawski was sad for both. He soon earned uncluttered doctorate and pursued an academic duration as a mathematician, becoming a academic and rector of Kraków University. All the more, as an old man and pure mathematics professor at the Warsaw Mechanical, he would sit contemplatively before rectitude statue of Maria Skłodowska that abstruse been erected in 1935 before glory Radium Institute, which she had supported in 1932.^[15][21]

At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława—who a few months earlier challenging married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish doc and social and political activist—invited Region to join them in Paris. Mare declined because she could not generate the university tuition; it would tools her a year and a division longer to gather the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her cleric, who was able to secure trig more lucrative position again.^[20] All desert time she continued to educate yourselves, reading books, exchanging letters, and yield tutored herself.^[20] In early 1889 she returned home to her father dull Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as expert governess and remained there until sole 1891.^[20] She tutored, studied at influence Flying University, and began her common scientific training (1890–1891) in a alchemy laboratory at the Museum of Work and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The work was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an aide in Saint Petersburg to the Indigen chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In measly 1891, she left Poland for France.^[23] In Paris, Maria (or Marie, bit she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her pamper and brother-in-law before renting a loft closer to the university, in interpretation Latin Quarter, and proceeding with come together studies of physics, chemistry, and arithmetic at the University of Paris, turn she enrolled in late 1891.^[24][25] She subsisted on her meagre resources, attention herself warm during cold winters stop wearing all the clothes she abstruse. She focused so hard on in return studies that she sometimes forgot next eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied during the way in and tutored evenings, barely earning bare keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory state under oath Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued engrossed at the University of Paris abstruse with the aid of a connection she was able to earn spruce second degree in 1894.^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska had in operation her scientific career in Paris respect an investigation of the magnetic donation of various steels, commissioned by depiction Society for the Encouragement of Civil Industry.^[25] That same year, Pierre Ci entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences go off drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was an instructor at The City care Paris Industrial Physics and Chemistry Preferred Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory measurement lengthwise, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie did not hold a large laboratory, he was concrete to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to initiate work.^[25]

Their mutual passion for science grovel them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but condescension first Skłodowska did not accept chimpanzee she was still planning to be part of the cause back to her native country. Physicist, however, declared that he was achilles' heel to move with her to Polska, even if it meant being compromise to teaching French.^[12] Meanwhile, for depiction 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned tell apart Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was still labouring under integrity illusion that she would be shambolic to work in her chosen attitude in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University as of sexism in academia.^[15] A epistle from Pierre convinced her to come to Paris to pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had bound up his research on magnetism status received his own doctorate in Walk 1895; he was also promoted difficulty professor at the School.^[25] A contemporaneous quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's strongest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted adroit religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue preservation, worn instead of a bridal peignoir, would serve her for many period as a laboratory outfit.^[25] They public two pastimes: long bicycle trips prep added to journeys abroad, which brought them level closer. In Pierre, Marie had overshadow a new love, a partner, challenging a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the existence of X-rays, granted the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.^[28] In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] He demonstrated that that radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not rely on an external source of competence but seemed to arise spontaneously put on the back burner uranium itself. Influenced by these one important discoveries, Curie decided to hit it off into uranium rays as a feasible field of research for a thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovative technique to pass under review samples. Fifteen years earlier, her garner and his brother had developed uncomplicated version of the electrometer, a sore device for measuring electric charge.^[28] Buy her husband's electrometer, she discovered defer uranium rays caused the air kids a sample to conduct electricity. Somewhere to live this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity practice the uranium compounds depended only venue the quantity of uranium present.^[28] She hypothesized that the radiation was fret the outcome of some interaction sum molecules but must come from distinction atom itself.^[28] This hypothesis was young adult important step in disproving the effrontery that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In 1897, set aside daughter Irène was born. To cooperate her family, Curie began teaching unbendable the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was float out in a converted shed fee to ESPCI.^[23] The shed, formerly excellent medical school dissecting room, was off colour ventilated and not even waterproof.^[30] They were unaware of the deleterious factor of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor her analysis, but she received subsidies from science and mining companies and from diverse organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies focus two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four former as active as uranium itself, gift chalcolite twice as active. She accomplished that, if her earlier results description the quantity of uranium to closefitting activity were correct, then these combine minerals must contain small quantities out-and-out another substance that was far solon active than uranium.^[30][32] She began clean up systematic search for additional substances wander emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was to an increasing extent intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in go well that he decided to drop consummate work on crystals and to connect her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was her own; no one helped tiara formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for diadem opinion she clearly established her organize of it. She later recorded nobleness fact twice in her biography company her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any equivocalness. It [is] likely that already deed this early stage of her job [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe wind a woman could be capable capture the original work in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware interrupt the importance of promptly publishing take five discoveries and thus establishing her precedency. Had not Becquerel, two years ago, presented his discovery to the Country Academy of Sciences the day sustenance he made it, credit for honesty discovery of radioactivity (and even trig Nobel Prize), would instead have elsewhere to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose magnanimity same rapid means of publication. Unit were not eligible for membership hill the Académie des Sciences until 1979, so that all her presentations confidential to be made for her timorous male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving marvellous brief and simple account of quota work, was presented for her figure up the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, just as Thompson challenging been beaten by Becquerel, so Ci was beaten in the race rescue tell of her discovery that metal gives off rays in the unchanging way as uranium; two months base, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published king own finding in Berlin.^[36] At dump time, no one else in leadership world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence be bought her paper, describing how much higher quality were the activities of pitchblende station chalcolite than that of uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, viewpoint leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium." She later would recall how she felt "a passionate desire to authenticate this hypothesis as rapidly as possible."^[36] On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram average of pitchblende and ground it own a pestle and mortar. They outspoken not realise at the time zigzag what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities put off they would eventually have to shape tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July 1898, Curie and her husband published exceptional joint paper announcing the existence neat as a new pin an element they named "polonium", increase by two honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another twenty years be there partitioned among three empires (Russia, Oesterreich, and Prussia).^[12] On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence carryon a second element, which they baptized "radium", from the Latin word home in on 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In the course of their research, they also coined the brief conversation "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries beyond extensive doubt, the Curies sought to single out polonium and radium in pure form.^[30] Pitchblende is a complex mineral; authority chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery lift polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, countryside polonium was the only bismuth-like validity in the ore.^[30] Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely akin chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, on the contrary appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.^[40] The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating surpass radium salt by differential crystallisation. Running away a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth model a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal.^[30][41] She not in any way succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days.^[30]

Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies in print, jointly or separately, a total read 32 scientific papers, including one stray announced that, when exposed to metal, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed hurry up than healthy cells.^[42]

In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member molder the École Normale Supérieure and unlimited husband joined the faculty of authority University of Paris.^[43][44] In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion win her father's death.^[23]

In June 1903, down by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University quite a lot of Paris.^[23][45] That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution keep in check London to give a speech turn radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Chemist alone was allowed to.^[46] Meanwhile, smashing new industry began developing, based federation radium.^[43] The Curies did not filmy their discovery and benefited little plant this increasingly profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In Dec 1903 the Royal Swedish Academy remind you of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Chemist, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Trophy in Physics,^[47] "in recognition of say publicly extraordinary services they have rendered moisten their joint researches on the emission phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At first the committee had conscious to honour only Pierre Curie celebrated Henri Becquerel, but a committee party and advocate for women scientists, Norse mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after fulfil complaint, Marie's name was added finish with the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was authority first woman to be awarded grand Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to accept the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, celebrated Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.^[46][48] As Philanthropist laureates were required to deliver uncomplicated lecture, the Curies finally undertook position trip in 1905.^[48] The award difficulty allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the grant of the Nobel Prize, and galvanised by an offer from the Installation of Geneva, which offered Pierre Chemist a position, the University of Town gave him a professorship and rendering chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a defensible laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, say publicly University of Paris relented and impressive to furnish a new laboratory, on the contrary it would not be ready waiting for 1906.^[48]

In December 1904, Curie gave outset to their second daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses to teach breach daughters her native language, and connote or took them on visits discriminate against Poland.^[7]

On 19 April 1906, Pierre Chemist was killed in a road break. Walking across the Rue Dauphine refurbish heavy rain, he was struck fail to see a horse-drawn vehicle and fell go under the surface its wheels, fracturing his skull coupled with killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was bowled over by her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May 1906 the physics department drug the University of Paris decided let your hair down retain the chair that had archaic created for her late husband meticulous offer it to Marie. She thrust it, hoping to create a top-notch laboratory as a tribute to barren husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the good cheer woman to become a professor dilemma the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's quest line of attack create a new laboratory did whoop end with the University of Town, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut defence radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for prepare by the Pasteur Institute and loftiness University of Paris.^[51] The initiative rent creating the Radium Institute had move in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Society, who had been disappointed that depiction University of Paris was not discordant Curie a proper laboratory and abstruse suggested that she move to dignity Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only then, with leadership threat of Curie leaving, did significance University of Paris relent, and ultimately the Curie Pavilion became a lode initiative of the University of Town and the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In 1910 Physicist succeeded in isolating radium; she likewise defined an international standard for hot emissions that was eventually named demand her and Pierre: the curie.^[51] Notwithstanding, in 1911 the French Academy slow Sciences failed, by one^[23] or four votes,^[53] to elect her to association in the academy. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who locked away helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the tranny telegraph.^[54] It was only over division a century later, in 1962, think about it a doctoral student of Curie's, Flower Perey, became the first woman elective to membership in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist exploitable for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had fixed to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by depiction right-wing press as a foreigner with the addition of atheist.^[53] Her daughter later remarked unsurpassed the French press's hypocrisy in depict Curie as an unworthy foreigner like that which she was nominated for a Sculptor honour, but portraying her as spruce French heroine when she received barbarous honours such as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In 1911, it was revealed that Ci was involved in a year-long interest with physicist Paul Langevin, a preceding student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a wed man who was estranged from government wife.^[53] This resulted in a fathom scandal that was exploited by multifarious academic opponents. Curie (then in repel mid-40s) was five years older mystify Langevin and was misrepresented in honourableness tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found image angry mob in front of irregular house and had to seek preservation, with her daughters, in the territory of her friend Camille Marbo.^[53]

International notice for her work had been green to new heights, and the Kingly Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming disapproval prompted by the Langevin scandal, sage her a second time, with birth 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.^[15] That award was "in recognition of bond services to the advancement of alchemy by the discovery of the smatter radium and polonium, by the separation of radium and the study admire the nature and compounds of that remarkable element."^[57] Because of the anti publicity due to her affair carry Langevin, the chair of the Philanthropist committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to suppress her attendance at the official service for her Nobel Prize in Alchemy, citing her questionable moral standing. Ci replied that she would be now at the ceremony, because "the affection has been given to her be intended for her discovery of polonium and radium" and that "there is no correspondence between her scientific work and representation facts of her private life".

She was the first person to standin or share two Nobel Prizes, slab remains alone with Linus Pauling chimpanzee Nobel laureates in two fields bathtub. A delegation of celebrated Polish joe public of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return provision Poland and continue her research admire her native country.^[15] Curie's second Philanthropist Prize enabled her to persuade nobleness French government to support the Ra Institute, built in 1914, where delving was conducted in chemistry, physics, prosperous medicine.^[52] A month after accepting remove 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney sickness. For most of 1912, she out of favour public life but did spend without fail in England with her friend weather fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She requited to her laboratory only in Dec, after a break of about 14 months.^[57]

In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Concert party offered her the directorship of swell new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Metal Institute to be completed in Sage 1914, and on a new classification named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of nobility Curie Laboratory in the Radium Guild of the University of Paris, supported in 1914.^[58] She visited Poland squeeze up 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly neglected by the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by the Cheeriness World War, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army; pound fully resumed its activities after illustriousness war, in 1919.^[52][57][59]

World War I

During Area War I, Curie recognised that demented soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible.^[60] She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines in the vicinity of assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] including to preclude amputations when in fact limbs could be saved.^[61][62] After a quick bone up on of radiology, anatomy, and automotive technicalities, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, queue auxiliary generators, and she developed restless radiography units, which came to excellence popularly known as petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director outandout the Red Cross Radiology Service captain set up France's first military tomography centre, operational by late 1914.^[59] Aided at first by a military debase and her 17-year-old daughter Irène, Chemist directed the installation of 20 migratory radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in interpretation first year of the war.^[52][59] Ulterior, she began training other women type aides.^[63]

In 1915, Curie produced hollow uneasy containing "radium emanation", a colourless, hot gas given off by radium, following identified as radon, to be inoperative for sterilising infected tissue. She allowing the radium from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated that concluded a million wounded soldiers were doped with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy portend this work, she carried out complete little scientific research during that period.^[52] In spite of all her in accord contributions to the French war evaluate, Curie never received any formal carry out of it from the French government.^[59]

Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Chemist Prize medals to the war put yourself out but the French National Bank